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Introduction: The Shifting Landscape of History

History is not a static entity, but rather a dynamic narrative that evolves over time. It can be distorted, rewritten, or intentionally concealed, often reflecting a failure to confront the past. However, the past continues to shape our present, and America’s history of enslavement has left an enduring legacy of oppression.

The disconnect between truth and deception in America’s collective memory is evident in current events. As protestors dismantle Confederate statues, some state governments seek to erase even basic education about slavery. Through these summaries, we’ll embark on a journey to nine sites, starting in New Orleans, to examine how slavery is remembered and misremembered in the US.

These portraits of people and places invite us to imagine an America where everyone acknowledges and comes to terms with this complex history. Along the way, we’ll uncover:

– A nuanced perspective on Thomas Jefferson

– The origins of Juneteenth

– The hidden significance at the Statue of Liberty’s feet

Join us as we delve into the multifaceted narrative of America’s past, exploring the intricacies of slavery, memory, and the ongoing quest for truth and reconciliation.

One: New Orleans; Uncovering the Hidden History of Slavery

As dusk falls on New Orleans’ French Quarter, the vibrant sounds of a brass band and passersby fill the air. The Mississippi River, once a route for over 100,000 enslaved people, now flows calmly, its amber waters carrying sediment from thousands of miles away.

Local historian and revolutionary Leon A. Waters stands before a plaque detailing the city’s dark past as the largest slave market in America. Such signs have begun to appear throughout New Orleans, acknowledging a history previously ignored, yet still felt in the ongoing legacy of oppression.

For years, Black Americans have suffered due to this legacy. Only recently, following tragic events and protests, has the country begun to confront its past. Leon has worked tirelessly to highlight New Orleans’ reckoning, leading tours and mentoring activists from Take ‘Em Down NOLA, a group dedicated to removing symbols of white supremacy.

This evening, Leon gives a tour to author Clint Smith, who, despite being born and raised in New Orleans, knew little about his city’s role in perpetuating slavery. The tour reveals hidden truths, from the Omni Royal Orleans Hotel, where enslaved people were bought and sold, to Jackson Square, where they were executed for rebelling.

As they drive through the city, Leon points out the numerous streets, parks, and schools named after Confederate leaders, enslavers, and proponents of slavery. The tour ends on Marigny Street, where Clint’s parents live, a testament to Bernard de Marigny, who owned over 150 enslaved people.

Historian Walter Johnson’s words echo through the city: “The whole city is a memorial to slavery.” New Orleans is just one example of America’s legacy of white supremacy. To understand the broader picture, Clint must visit more places, exploring those that confront the truth, those that deny it, and those that struggle to find a path forward.

Two: Monticello Plantation; Unveiling the Complex Legacy of Thomas Jefferson

As Clint approaches the grand, 11,000-square-foot mansion, the scorching sun beats down, while mulberry trees offer a respite from the heat. He’s about to embark on a tour of Monticello, the former home of Thomas Jefferson, where hundreds of enslaved people once lived.

The tour group, comprised mostly of white visitors, seems uneasy as their guide, David Thorson, explains the brutal system of slavery and its justification by those who knew it was wrong. Jefferson, the principal author of the Declaration of Independence, also kept records of selling, leasing, and mortgaging enslaved people to pay his debts.

Forced labor built Jefferson’s opulent home, enabling him to pursue his interests in reading, writing, and hosting guests. However, his relationship with Sally Hemings, a 16-year-old enslaved Black woman, was marked by decades of sexual abuse, resulting in six children. This exploitation was all too common in 18th-century Virginia, where Black women had no recourse against their white enslavers.

Jefferson acknowledged the dehumanizing effects of slavery, yet he believed Black people were inferior. His personal desires and economic interests ultimately took precedence over any moral ideals.

In recent years, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation has made efforts to present a more comprehensive view of the founding father. The Getting Word oral history project, launched in 1993, collected stories from the descendants of Monticello’s enslaved people. The foundation also prioritizes hiring guides who can balance truth and sensitivity when sharing the complex history of the plantation.

As David recounts the stories of enslaved people, he humanizes them, sharing their desires, laughter, and fears. Two women on the tour, self-proclaimed Republicans, are visibly moved, their perception of Jefferson forever changed.

David reflects, “There’s a difference between history and nostalgia. History is the story of the past, piecing together facts, while nostalgia is a made-up fantasy.” He highlights the importance of acknowledging the complexities of the past, rather than romanticizing it.

The rhetoric of “Make America Great Again” implies a nostalgic longing for a bygone era. However, as David notes, “great never existed.” By confronting the harsh realities of history, we can work towards a more nuanced understanding of our collective past and its ongoing impact on our present.

Three: The Whitney Plantation; Unveiling the Brutal History of Slavery

Clint stands before a haunting exhibit at the Whitney Plantation in Wallace, Louisiana: 55 ceramic statues of Black men, their faces contorted in anguish, atop metal pikes. This gruesome scene depicts the aftermath of the largest slave rebellion in US history, which took place in 1811.

In contrast to other plantations in Louisiana, which often downplay or distort the history of slavery, the Whitney Plantation takes a bold approach. It centers around the experiences of the enslaved, presenting itself as “an open book, up under the sky.” This museum seeks to rectify a long-skewed narrative.

Inside a white church, Clint is met with dozens of life-size clay sculptures of children, filling the pews. These sculptures serve as a poignant reminder of the exploitation of children in the domestic slave industry. After the transatlantic slave trade was outlawed in 1808, the number of enslaved people in the US soared, with 57% of them under the age of 20 by 1860.

The museum sheds light on the inhumane treatment of enslaved people, including the practice of keeping enslaved women as “breeders” and the use of their children as workers or commodities to be sold. The implications are staggering: plantation owners were enslaving their own children.

Even in death, enslaved people’s bodies were not spared. Medical schools like Harvard and the University of Pennsylvania used their cadavers for research and education. Today, 150 years after emancipation, the descendants of these enslaved workers continue to suffer from poverty, environmental devastation, and some of the highest cancer risks in the country.

Despite this ongoing oppression, Yvonne Holden, the Whitney’s director of operations, emphasizes a narrative of accomplishment. Enslaved people endured unimaginable hardships, yet they also left an incredible legacy, contributing to the US economy, culture, and medical advancements.

Yvonne’s mission is to humanize the enslaved, portraying them as resilient, determined, and strong individuals. As a Black woman, she knows the unique challenges that society poses, and she believes that understanding this history is crucial to recognizing the value of Black lives today.

Four: Angola Prison; A Haunting Legacy of Slavery and Mass Incarceration

Clint’s journey takes him to Louisiana State Penitentiary, also known as Angola Prison, built on the site of a former cotton plantation owned by notorious slave trader Isaac Franklin. Clint is accompanied by Norris Henderson, a former inmate who spent 27 years in Angola for a crime he didn’t commit. Since his release, Norris has dedicated himself to criminal justice reform.

As they enter the prison, Clint is struck by the eerie similarities between the past and present. The prison’s history is deeply rooted in white supremacy, dating back to the post-Reconstruction era. The convict leasing system, established in 1880, forced imprisoned Black men to work on plantations and build railroads under inhumane conditions. Norris shares his own experience, earning only seven cents an hour picking cotton after spending six months working to pay off his prison clothes.

The prison museum’s giant photo, depicting a white correctional officer leading Black men to the fields, is a jarring reminder that this isn’t just a relic of the past. The image is a stark representation of the ongoing legacy of slavery and mass incarceration.

Clint’s tour guide glosses over the prison’s plantation past, failing to acknowledge the parallels between chattel slavery and the convict leasing system. The guide’s dismissive response to Clint’s inquiry – “I can’t change what happened here” – echoes the sentiments of politicians who downplay the significance of slavery and its ongoing impact on American society.

As Clint departs the prison, he witnesses a group of men working in a field, their garden hoes rising and falling in a haunting rhythm. The scene is a poignant reminder that, for many, the past is not just a distant memory, but a harsh reality that continues to shape their lives.

Five: Blandford Cemetery; A Legacy of Distortion and Deception

Clint stands amidst the tranquil atmosphere of Blandford Cemetery in Petersburg, Virginia, where nearly 30,000 Confederate soldiers lie buried. The scent of freshly cut grass fills the air as Black men tend to the lawn, surrounded by gravestones adorned with Confederate flags.

The cemetery’s history is a complex one. In 1866, a group of women formed the Ladies’ Memorial Association to exhume and rebury Confederate soldiers who had been buried where they fell during the Civil War. The women transformed the cemetery’s old church into a memorial, featuring stained-glass windows honoring the fallen from each Confederate state.

However, this commemoration is tainted by the cemetery’s proximity to the site of the Battle of the Crater, where white Confederate soldiers brutally executed 200 Black Union soldiers attempting to surrender. Clint inquires about how the cemetery addresses this dark history, but the docent’s response is dismissive, opting to focus on the beauty of the stained-glass windows instead.

This avoidance of the truth is symptomatic of a broader issue. A report by the Southern Poverty Law Center revealed that over 2,000 Confederate monuments exist across the US, perpetuating a distorted narrative of the Civil War and the Confederacy’s motivations. These monuments, preserved with taxpayer money, are a legacy of the Lost Cause movement, which sought to justify Jim Crow laws and downplay the role of slavery in the Civil War.

The Sons of Confederate Veterans, an organization founded in 1896, has been instrumental in promoting this false narrative. At a Memorial Day event, Clint listens as the commander in chief shares a fabricated account of the first Memorial Day, claiming that Confederate women honored both Union and Confederate soldiers. In reality, the first Memorial Day ceremony was held by Black workmen in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1865.

The persistence of these falsehoods raises questions about the importance of truth and accuracy in preserving history. At Blandford Cemetery, it seems that upholding the lies of the past takes precedence over confronting the harsh realities of the Confederacy’s legacy.

Six: Galveston Island, Texas

Galveston Island, Texas, is where Union General Gordon Granger stood on the balcony of Ashton Villa on June 19, 1865, and declared all slaves in Texas free. This historic event is reenacted annually as part of the Juneteenth celebrations, which honor the emancipation of enslaved African Americans in the United States.

Although there’s no concrete evidence that the event unfolded exactly as described, the myth has become a cherished tradition. The audience’s emotional reactions during the reenactment are a testament to the significance of this moment in history. Some audience members shake, others smile with their eyes closed, and some embrace, demonstrating that history is alive and palpable.

The backstory leading up to this moment is complex. Robert E. Lee’s surrender on April 9, 1865, marked the end of the Civil War, but many enslavers failed to inform their enslaved workers of the news. It wasn’t until two months later, and two years after Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, that General Granger arrived in Galveston and issued General Order Number 3, declaring freedom for all slaves in Texas.

However, the reality of freedom was far from straightforward. Many enslaved individuals in remote areas didn’t learn about the order for weeks, months, or even years. Historian W. Caleb McDaniel notes that “slavery did not end cleanly or on a single day… It ended through a violent, uneven process”.

Despite their significant contributions to the country’s wealth, Black Americans own less than 4% of it today. In 1979, Texas legislator Al Edwards introduced a bill making Juneteenth a state holiday, marking the first official celebration of Black emancipation in the US. Galveston’s annual event has been held ever since, with locals referring to Juneteenth as “our Independence Day”.

The commemoration serves as a poignant reminder of the ongoing struggle for justice and equality. As Grant Mitchell, a long-time sponsor of the event, emphasizes, “This is not just a celebration… The path towards justice is long and uncertain… Today is also a day of reflection, to ask ourselves, ‘Where are we on that path?'”.

Seven: New York City; Uncovering the Hidden History of Slavery

As Clint joins a walking tour on slavery and the Underground Railroad in New York City, guide Damaras Obi sets the tone for the journey. She explains that New World enslavement, or chattel slavery, was rooted in the European concept of a racial caste system, which deemed Africans inherently subhuman. This ideology, Damaras emphasizes, has no scientific basis, and race is, in fact, a social construct resulting from racism.

The tour group navigates through Manhattan, visiting sites that reveal the city’s complex history with slavery. At the intersection of Water and Wall Streets, a small plaque marks the site of a historic market where enslaved people were auctioned from 1711 to 1762. Damaras notes that enslaved workers comprised over 25% of the labor force in New York City during the 17th and 18th centuries.

The tour continues to the New York Stock Exchange, where Damaras highlights the area’s significance to the Underground Railroad. The group visits the African Burial Ground, a site where thousands of Black people were laid to rest from the 1690s to 1975. The burial ground was erased from public memory until its rediscovery in 1990.

Even the iconic Statue of Liberty bears traces of the city’s past. Édouard René de Laboulaye’s early design featured the statue holding broken shackles, symbolizing abolition. Although the final design omitted this detail, remnants of a broken shackle and chain can still be found at Liberty’s feet.

Throughout the tour, Damaras challenges the common narrative that the North was innocent of slavery’s evils. She emphasizes that New York City’s financial industry played a significant role in the slave trade, and that the city’s history is inextricably linked to the institution of slavery.

Eight: Gorée Island

Gorée Island, located off the coast of Senegal in the Atlantic Ocean, is a world away from the bustling city of Dakar, despite being only a 15-minute ferry ride away. The island’s tranquil atmosphere, swaying palm trees, and weathered homes evoke a sense of serenity, but its history tells a different story. Gorée Island played a pivotal role in the transatlantic slave trade from the 1500s until France abolished slavery in its colonies in 1848.

The island was a major hub for enslaved Africans being transported to the New World, and its notorious Maison des Esclaves, or House of Slaves, stands as a haunting reminder of this dark past. The house, once the residence of Anna Colas Pépin, a French-African woman who owned and traded enslaved people, is now a museum and memorial to the victims of the slave trade.

Boubacar Joseph Ndiaye, a Gorée native, was instrumental in documenting the house’s history and conceiving the idea of the “Door of No Return,” a poignant symbol of the enslaved people’s brutal journey to the Americas. However, scholars estimate that the actual number of enslaved people who passed through Gorée was around 33,000, not the millions often claimed.

Despite the controversy surrounding the island’s history, Gorée Island remains a powerful site of memory and reckoning. As Eloi Coly, the House of Slaves’ curator, notes, “The number of slaves is not important when you talk about memory… One slave is too much.” The island’s significance extends beyond its historical accuracy, serving as a testament to the transatlantic slave trade’s profound impact on human history.

Gorée Island’s importance has been recognized by UNESCO, which named it a World Heritage Site in 1978. The island has also been visited by numerous world leaders, including US presidents Barack Obama, George W. Bush, and Bill Clinton, as well as activist Angela Davis and Pope John Paul II. As Clint reflects on the island’s history, he wonders whether the exact number of enslaved people held in the island’s dark rooms really matters, or if the island can still serve as a site of memory for a larger truth.

Conclusion

After his journey across the US and abroad, Clint turned his attention to his own family’s history. He interviewed his living grandparents and discovered a shocking revelation: his grandfather’s grandfather had been enslaved. This newfound understanding sparked a deeper connection to the past and its ongoing impact on the present.

Together, Clint and his grandparents visited the National Museum of African American History and Culture (NMAAHC) in Washington, DC. As they walked through the museum, they were confronted with the harsh realities of America’s history. They passed a statue of Thomas Jefferson, surrounded by bricks bearing the names of people he had enslaved, including his own children.

The exhibit on Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy brutally murdered in 1955, resonated deeply with Clint’s grandfather. Having grown up in 1930s Mississippi, he had lived just a few miles away from where Emmett was killed. He shared stories of the pervasive segregation, lynchings, and “night riders” – white supremacist vigilantes who terrorized Black communities.

Clint’s grandfather considered himself fortunate, having been academically gifted and receiving support from his elementary school principal. However, Clint’s grandmother described her experience at the museum as “really depressing.” Born in Florida in 1939, she had lived through segregation and remembered the painful experiences of her family, including her grandfather being forced to stand during an eight-hour bus ride.

As Clint listened to his grandparents’ stories, he realized that the museum was not just a collection of artifacts and exhibits but a reflection of their lived experiences. His grandmother’s words, “I lived it,” echoed through his mind, serving as both an affirmation of the museum’s importance and a warning to never forget the country’s troubled past. Clint’s grandparents’ stories had become monuments to the history of slavery, a history that was inextricably linked to the history of the United States.

About the author

Clint Smith is a renowned author and staff writer at The Atlantic. His notable works include the award-winning poetry collection “Counting Descent”. Smith’s writing has been featured in esteemed publications such as The New Yorker, The New York Times Magazine, The Paris Review, and Poetry. He has received prestigious fellowships from the Art for Justice Fund, Cave Canem, New America, and the National Science Foundation. Smith holds academic credentials from Davidson College (BA in English) and Harvard University (PhD in Education).

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