Description

Introduction

Diverse cultures and histories often lead to divergent interests and conclusions. While former US secretary of state Henry Kissinger and every reader may not always see eye to eye with China’s foreign policy strategy, it remains crucial to comprehend it, considering China’s prominent role in global politics and the evolving international order of the twenty-first century. In his 2011 book “On China,” Kissinger endeavors to elucidate how Chinese leaders perceive issues of war, peace, and international law in contrast to the democratic and pragmatic American approach. To facilitate this understanding, Kissinger delineates the significant phases of Chinese dynasties and the history of Sino-American relations since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China.

Chapter One: Reconnecting and Fostering Peace: The Journey of Henry Kissinger with China

In 1971, President Richard Nixon dispatched Henry Kissinger to Beijing with the ambitious goal of reestablishing relations between the United States and China after more than two decades of estrangement. The mission aimed to present a vision of peace that transcended the Cold War era and the tumultuous Vietnam War, marking a significant shift in American foreign policy. Despite its primary alignment with the USSR, China, too, sought measures to safeguard itself from potential aggression from Moscow.

Since that pivotal moment, Henry Kissinger has embarked on over fifty visits to China, leading him to develop a profound admiration for the Chinese way of life, much like any other tourist. However, beyond his personal interest, Kissinger also pondered ways to promote peace, particularly from an American perspective. Notably, China has since evolved into a major global political player and a significant economic force, a stark transformation from the time of his first visit.

The relationship between the United States and China gained paramount importance in the quest for global peace, especially after the US emerged victorious in the Cold War. This complex and nuanced relationship weathered the test of time, enduring through four Chinese leaders and eight American presidents, who remained steadfast in preventing historical and political divisions from obstructing their cooperation.

In the pursuit of applying their ideals on a global scale, nearly all cultures, including the United States, have made efforts to influence others. However, China stands out in its ability to effectively persuade many of its neighbors to embrace its worldview, solidifying its position on the world stage.

The journey of Henry Kissinger with China symbolizes not only a reconnection between two nations but also the ongoing endeavor for peace and cooperation amidst a rapidly evolving global landscape.

Chapter Two: Chinese Dynasties: A Historical Perspective

Societies and nations often view themselves as eternal, cherishing their ancestry with great importance. However, Chinese civilization stands apart, seemingly without a defined beginning. History portrays it as a constant phenomenon rather than a typical chronological condition. Even in the narrative of the Yellow Emperor, widely considered the historical founding monarch of China, it appears that China preexisted. The Chinese society had already experienced chaos, with a weak king unable to maintain order while princes vied for power. The emergence of the Yellow Emperor as a heroic figure brought peace through his military prowess, earning him the title of emperor. His role became foundational, not as a builder of an empire, but as a rehabilitator of an existing one.

The antiquity of Chinese civilization has made it difficult to pinpoint a precise starting point. While most countries boast distinct origins with historical traditions, monuments, and documents tracing their development, China’s infancy left few such traces. Instead, it witnessed numerous periods of anarchy, upheaval, and civil war throughout its history. Nevertheless, China demonstrated resilience, repeatedly rebuilding itself with new rulers following the example of the Yellow Emperor in their quest to unify the nation.

By the end of the eighteenth century, China had reached the pinnacle of its imperial power. The establishment of the Qing Dynasty in 1644 by the Manchu tribes propelled China into a major military force, expanding its influence westward and northward to regions like Tibet, Xinjiang, and Mongolia, establishing dominance over a considerable portion of Asia. This ascendancy even spurred competition among other global empires.

However, this apex marked a turning point as China drew the interest of Western countries, and the desire to maintain the Chinese dynasty gave way to a clash with the barbarians seeking to impose a different global order. In 1793–1794, Britain’s Lord George Macartney was sent on a mission to establish unrestricted commerce and diplomatic relations with China, but it proved to be a complete failure.

In essence, the history of Chinese dynasties remains a tale of continuity, resilience, and encounters with external powers, shaping the rich tapestry of China’s past and its enduring position on the world stage.

Chapter Three: Facing Threats on Multiple Fronts

China’s historical reputation suffered a significant blow in the nineteenth century as it confronted a series of challenges from various directions. While it had once allowed international trade and diplomacy, acknowledging its own superiority, the Opium War with European countries marked a turning point, exposing China to external threats. Rather than merely presenting defensive dangers, European states introduced unconventional ideas about the global order. The Chinese perceived this as a peril, but the Europeans’ intentions were not to conquer or overthrow the dynasty. Instead, they sought to establish a completely new world system that contradicted the existing one.

Simultaneously, Russia was steadily expanding its territory and military might from the north, presenting a different kind of threat. Unlike other conquerors, Russia showed little regard for borders and refused to assimilate Chinese culture. Regions that came under Russia’s influence were irreversibly lost to the Chinese empire. However, neither the Western powers nor Russia attempted to overthrow the Qing monarchy, realizing that such a move would come at a high cost.

Japan, on the other hand, demonstrated a different approach, displaying no interest in preserving the institutions of the Chinese dynasty or the Sinocentric international order. Instead, Japan aimed to annex significant portions of Chinese territory from the east and position itself as the new epicenter of an Asian international order, usurping China’s former role.

Throughout history, each new dynasty’s rise followed its own rhythm. In each case, it was believed that the preceding dynasty had failed to uphold China’s security and fulfill its primary objectives, leading to the cyclical nature of dynastic changes and the ongoing challenges faced by the nation.

 

Chapter Four: Tripartite Diplomacy: Mao’s Calculated Approach

In 1949, the Communists emerged victorious in China’s civil war, led by the poet-warrior Mao Zedong. Through his unifying efforts, China became the People’s Republic of China, and the Communist Party took control, propelling the nation to become a major global power alongside Vietnam, North Korea, and Cuba, the remaining communist nations.

Mao’s first significant step in foreign diplomacy occurred on December 16, 1949, when he traveled to Moscow to form an alliance with the powerful Soviet Union. However, this initial alliance evolved into a three-way diplomacy involving the Soviet Union, China, and the United States, where actions were taken both in favor of and against one another.

During his meeting with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, Mao stressed China’s need for three to five years of peace to stabilize society and boost its economy. However, less than a year after Mao’s visit to Russia, China found itself at war with the United States, and Stalin showed little interest in aiding China’s recovery. Recognizing Mao’s self-reliance and assertiveness among Communist leaders, Stalin perceived him as a potential threat.

The ensuing Korean War further complicated the dynamics, as it directly engaged both the US and China and indirectly involved the USSR, culminating in a confrontation between the two major communist powers.

Mao astutely used the conflicting animosities between the US and Russia to his advantage. While leaders often seek overlapping interests in foreign policy to achieve their political goals, Mao employed a reverse approach, exploiting the enmity between the two superpowers. The Cold War tensions between Washington and Moscow shaped Asian diplomacy, with Beijing becoming a key player in the power struggle.

Although Mao lacked the traditional political power of the other two superpowers, he skillfully navigated the geopolitical landscape. Capitalizing on the mutual animosity between the US and the USSR and his country’s indifference to the nuclear threat, Mao established a unique diplomatic position.

In this intricate tripartite diplomacy, Mao’s calculated approach allowed China to assert its influence on the global stage, forging a path that was distinct from both the US and the USSR.

Chapter Five: The “Campaign of a Hundred Flowers”: A Decade of Turmoil

In the initial decade after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, administrators grappled with the task of managing the vast empire and elevating it to a world power. However, Mao’s vision for revolution came to define the second decade. He firmly believed that moral and ideological strength would triumph over any physical constraints. The Chinese government’s actions were a significant factor in the domestic instability that characterized this period, leading to China’s isolation from the rest of the world, with many ambassadors returning to Beijing. The country experienced upheaval on both economic and social fronts, with the Great Leap Forward, a national economic collectivization initiative, marking the beginning, and the Cultural Revolution concluding the tumultuous decade.

As the economy rapidly advanced, the Communist Party responded with resolutions against it, seeking to alleviate class tensions. Nevertheless, Mao’s notion of an ongoing revolution clashed with this conventional approach. He swiftly implemented several political reforms, including the decision to launch the Hundred Flowers Campaign, embracing disagreement and debate while encouraging China’s creative and intellectual life. The true motivations behind Mao’s campaign remain a subject of debate. Some argue that Mao genuinely wanted to end his party’s political isolation, while others suggest he used this tactic to expose and eliminate his adversaries. The campaign led to the exile, reeducation, or imprisonment of thousands of intellectuals during a national purge. By the campaign’s end, Mao had successfully rid his domain of dissenters, consolidating his position as the undisputed leader.

By the time Mao and Nixon sought to work together, China was embroiled in the Cultural Revolution, while the US faced pressure from Vietnam War protests. Employing a traditional Chinese strategy, Mao pitted his adversaries against one another. Meanwhile, Nixon advocated for China’s reintegration into the world community to prevent further regional threats and delusions. However, initiating dialogue between Nixon and Mao proved challenging, given the numerous obstacles they faced.

Amidst a decade of upheaval and political maneuvering, the “Campaign of a Hundred Flowers” emerged as a pivotal chapter in China’s history, leaving a lasting impact on its domestic and international landscape.

Chapter Six: Nixon’s Secretive Visit to China: Forging a Historic Bond

In a moment of utmost importance and spectacle, the Nixon administration undertook a covert mission that would shape history. President Nixon’s decision to visit China in February 1972 had to remain shrouded in secrecy to ensure its success. Disclosing the mission prematurely could have rocked the US government, eliciting requests for advice from around the world, including Taiwan. Such exposure might have jeopardized nascent relations with Beijing, whose goals and mindset remained largely unknown.

While transparency was crucial in dealings between the US and China, there were also imperatives to seize this historic opportunity in forging a stable international order. To lay the groundwork for this significant endeavor, Nixon dispatched a delegation to Beijing on July 9, 1971, led by Henry Kissinger, accompanied by other officials and Secret Service officers. Until that point, American officials had only engaged with Communist diplomats from the Soviet Union. However, they found a diplomatic approach in Beijing that reflected traditional Chinese diplomacy.

Finally, after seven months, Nixon arrived in Beijing on a cold day, February 21, 1972. Throughout his visit, he focused on presenting a comprehensive American policy roadmap to his counterparts. Equipped with exceptional negotiation and briefing skills, Nixon possessed a profound understanding of global trends. Engaging in fifteen-hour sessions with Chinese leaders, he articulated his vision for US-China relations and their substantial influence on world affairs. Nixon’s goal was not to persuade China’s leaders to embrace democracy, despite his aversion to communism. Instead, in a world already tense with the Cold War and the specter of nuclear conflict, he sought to establish a stable international order. His proposed approach centered on balancing the interests of both nations while ensuring stability, averting global political catastrophe, and fostering predictability in US-China ties.

With the creation of the Shanghai Communiqué, which restored the US-China relationship and initiated a strategic partnership, Nixon’s mission to the People’s Republic of China reached its successful conclusion. The US reaffirmed its commitment to pursuing peaceful solutions, and since Nixon’s historic visit, both the US and China have worked to maintain their strategic connections without disruption.

Nixon’s secret journey to China marked a pivotal moment in history, setting the stage for a new era of engagement and diplomacy between two major powers on the global stage.

Chapter Seven: China’s Transformation under Deng Xiaoping

With the passing of Mao Zedong in 1976, a new era began in China under the leadership of his successor, Deng Xiaoping. Those who had witnessed Mao’s China firsthand could truly grasp and appreciate the profound reforms Deng was about to introduce.

Mao’s vision of China had been marked by construction booms, crowded cities, and competitive development rates. However, achieving these goals seemed impossible under Mao’s leadership. The nation was burdened by agricultural communes and economic stagnation, leaving it in ruins. Nevertheless, this foundation would later serve as the platform for Deng’s ambitious modernization efforts.

Deng Xiaoping had the audacity to pursue modernization based on the unique strengths and resilience of the Chinese people. He set out to promote socialism with distinct Chinese characteristics, boldly dismantling communes and granting provinces greater autonomy. Deng’s vision for China began to take shape, transforming the nation into the world’s second-largest economy with bustling cities adorned with skyscrapers and considerable foreign exchange reserves.

Even amid the aftermath of the tumultuous Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping, in 1974, initiated the formulation of a modernization strategy. This grand vision would eventually propel China to become a global economic powerhouse. Yet, Deng’s endeavors were fraught with immense personal danger, as Mao still held considerable control at that time. Undeterred, Deng persevered, gradually becoming China’s window to the outside world, expanding his vision and ideas.

Through strategic reforms and the gradual opening up of China, Deng Xiaoping’s ascent to power culminated by the early 1980s. His transformative leadership set China on an unprecedented path of growth and development, ushering in an era of remarkable progress and change that continues to shape the nation’s destiny today.

Chapter Eight: Carter and Reagan: The Evolution of Sino-American Relations

In February 1979, China initiated the Third Vietnam War by invading Vietnam in response to the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia. This conflict unfolded as a consequence of Vietnam’s quest for independence from France in the first Vietnam War, and the US involvement in the second. China’s invasion aimed to teach Vietnam a lesson, but after six weeks, they withdrew their forces. Premier Hua Guofeng famously remarked that they had “kissed the tiger’s buttocks,” a phrase echoing Mao’s denotation of a perilous act. Despite disobeying a mutual accord between Vietnam and Russia, China’s primary objective was achieved, exposing the strategic limitations of the Soviet Union.

During the Jimmy Carter administration from 1977 to 1981, normalizing Sino-American relations became a top priority in both nations’ foreign policies. Carter and his top advisers reaffirmed the fundamentals of this partnership, fostering strategic collaboration between the two countries. However, the continuity of US foreign policy faced obstacles due to the frequent changes in administrations, a challenge that emerged with the election of a new Republican president in 1981.

Ronald Reagan’s presidency made the Chinese uneasy. Despite careful analysis, Chinese researchers found him difficult to understand. Reagan’s approach to American conservatism differed from Nixon’s cerebral and reserved style or Gerald Ford’s calm leadership. He represented a new brand of American conservatism that regarded Communism as an evil to be swiftly eradicated, rather than a menace to be contained over time. Reagan exuded immense enthusiasm for America’s potential in times of crisis. However, his criticism of Communism was predominantly directed towards the USSR and its allies.

Interestingly, Reagan’s assessment of Russia’s motives aligned with the lessons provided by Deng Xiaoping to senior American officials. Yet, Reagan also displayed deep personal devotion to Taiwan’s political system. His stance epitomized the American perspective, combining a strong commitment to the nascent relationship with Beijing and unwavering emotional support for Taiwan.

The presidencies of Carter and Reagan shaped the trajectory of Sino-American relations, highlighting the complexities and evolving dynamics between the two nations. Their policies and approaches left lasting impacts on the delicate balance of international diplomacy in the latter half of the 20th century.

Tiananmen: Shifting Sino-American Relations

At the beginning of 1989, the Soviet Union experienced the dawn of significant changes in Eastern Europe, leading to the fall of the Berlin Wall in November and the ultimate collapse of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, China maintained its stability amid these shifts in global politics, fostering relatively positive relations with other nations, particularly the United States. Sino-American ties flourished, with increased trade, military sales, and vibrant exchanges. Together, the two countries cooperated to prevent the Soviet Union from occupying Afghanistan.

However, the tragic conclusion of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations marked a dramatic turning point in Sino-American relations. The protests began after the death of former General Secretary Hu Yaobang, with demonstrators advocating for the continuation of his commitment to liberalizing society and politics through future reforms. They voiced their grievances regarding issues such as inflation, press censorship, and university conditions, challenging the legitimacy of the government. Unfortunately, the demonstrations were violently quelled as government troops opened fire, resulting in a tragic loss of thousands of lives.

The global response to these events was powerful and critical. China, once seen as a country in the process of reform, now faced international condemnation and was viewed as an authoritarian dictatorship that suppresses any attempts at advancing human rights. Deng Xiaoping, who had previously been admired as a reformer, was now criticized as a despot.

In the aftermath of Tiananmen, the United States faced pressure to reevaluate its strategic collaboration with China. Critics argued that political sanctions should be imposed, as they deemed it difficult to trust and support a dictatorship of this nature.

The events at Tiananmen Square brought about a significant shift in perceptions and attitudes towards China and highlighted the complexities and challenges in maintaining stable relations in the face of human rights issues. It underscored the delicate balancing act for the United States between advancing its interests and promoting human rights values in its international engagements.

Chapter Nine: A Balancing Act of Power

During 1971-1972, the United States set aside its concerns about China’s internal politics to forge positive relations, recognizing the importance of these ties in maintaining a stable international order. However, following the events of Tiananmen, Sino-American relations plummeted to a new low. Sanctions were imposed, and as liberal and democratic principles spread worldwide, reforming China’s domestic political system became a significant American policy objective.

After the fall of the Soviet Union, the US and China no longer faced a common adversary. During the majority of the 1990s, Jiang Zemin led the PRC, yet both nations struggled to find common ground on the global order. Rather than engaging in a military race, competition between China and the United States is more likely to manifest in the realms of economics and social influence. Despite this, the United States retains the responsibility to uphold its global influence and competitiveness, guided by its own objectives rather than merely outdoing China. Meanwhile, discussions between the two nations will inevitably bring up the subject of human rights.

Ultimately, what China and the United States can reasonably demand from each other and their respective global objectives will remain central issues in their interactions. Striking a balance between their national interests and their roles in shaping the world’s future will be crucial in navigating the complexities of their relationship. As both nations assert their positions on the global stage, finding areas of cooperation and understanding will be pivotal in maintaining stability and progress in an increasingly interconnected world.

Author’s Style

Henry Kissinger’s writing in On China is a compelling and enlightening exploration of the subject. However, it may at times diverge from historical chronology, leading to moments of confusion. In this work, Kissinger skillfully blends his personal recollections of diplomatic experiences with astute political and historical observations. The narrative frequently incorporates Chinese phrases, names, and interactions with Chinese authorities, providing a deep and authentic insight into the culture and context.

Readers will find an enriching journey through the pages of On China, as Kissinger includes maps of China and its neighboring nations, reference lists, and snippets of speeches. These additions enhance the reader’s understanding, creating a comprehensive and immersive reading experience. Despite occasional complexities, the depth and educational value of Kissinger’s work make it a remarkable exploration of China’s past, present, and its place in the global landscape.

About the author

During the tenure of Republican presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford, Henry Kissinger assumed significant roles as national security adviser and secretary of state. Renowned as a diplomat, politician, and geopolitical advisor, Kissinger’s remarkable journey began in Germany in 1923, where he was born into a Jewish family that sought refuge in the United States in 1938, fleeing the oppressive Nazi regime. Throughout his career, Kissinger’s realpolitik approach garnered both admiration and critique. Notably, he displayed a deep affinity for prominent figures, as evident in his heartfelt dedication to Oscar de la Renta and his wife in his work “On China” while staying at their Punta Cana residence during the book’s inception.

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